Part Two: First Nations Archaeological Cultures
As the name implies, archaeologists believe these groups share similar ancestry to contemporary First Nations in the province today. However, as you will see below, some archaeologists believe in a separation between these groups and contemporary First Nations—though they would still consider these groups related as First Nations people—while Indigenous Elders/Knowledge Keepers and other archaeologists believe these groups are directly related to contemporary First Nations in Newfoundland and Labrador (NL).
First Nations Archaeological Cultures
Timeline: Archaeological Period 1 (9,000 – 3,200 Years Ago)
Maritime Archaic and Labrador Archaic
The Maritime Archaic and Labrador Archaic appear in Labrador, starting in the Strait of Belle Island, around 9,000 years ago. Some archaeologists refer to both the Maritime Archaic and Labrador Archaic as the Southern Branch Maritime Archaic and the Northern Branch Maritime Archaic, respectively. The Labrador Archaic (or Northern Branch) lived in Northern Labrador first, while the Maritime Archaic (Southern Branch) lived in Southern Labrador, Newfoundland, and throughout the Maritime Provinces, developing in the south after the Labrador Archaic were already established in the north. Archaeologists believe these peoples descended from the “Paleoindian” peoples living in what is now Québec and the Maritimes prior to 9,000 years ago. However, traces of their presence in the province disappeared from the archaeological record about 3,200 years ago. Archaeologists are not sure what happened to the Maritime Archaic, but believe that social (i.e., conflicts and competition with other Indigenous groups) and environmental (i.e., the environment getting cooler) impacts could have led to the extinction, abandonment, or changes in the artifacts of the Maritime Archaic. Some contemporary First Nations and archaeologists believe that the Maritime Archaic continued on into later First Nations groups, including the Mi’kmaq and Innu in NL today.
Timeline: Archaeological Period 2 (3,200 – 400 Years Ago)
Ancestral First Nations
The label “Ancestral First Nations” is not a common term among archaeologists in NL—this is a term I use to refer to the peoples included under the terms “Intermediate Indians” and “Recent Indians,” in hopes it makes things a bit easier to follow. There are many archaeological cultures grouped into the “Ancestral First Nations” label, such as the Intermediate Period Peoples, which includes the North West River Phase and Saunders Complex, and the Recent Period Peoples, which includes the Cow Head Complex, Beaches Complex, Little Passage Complex, Daniel Rattle Complex, and Point Revenge Complex. These peoples could have developed from the Maritime Archaic, or could have been an entirely new group moving into the area from elsewhere. Archaeologists are also not sure if the Intermediate Period Peoples and Recent Period Peoples are connected to each other, or they are new groups moving into the area. However, some archaeologists believe there is a clear connection between the Ancestral First Nations and contemporary First Nations (e.g., Mi’kmaq, Innu, and Beothuk). Please note that I have mentioned the Beothuk as a First Nation, as they are thought to have shared ancestry as Algonquin Peoples, but the Beothuk are not a contemporary First Nation as defined by the Indian Act.
Timeline: Archaeological Period 3 (400 Years Ago – Present)
Beothuk
The Beothuk are the most studied group in this time period, with research primarily focusing on the island of Newfoundland. However, the Beothuk are known to have occupied the island and parts of Labrador. There is a clear link between the Beothuk and the Ancestral First Nations, particularly the Beaches and Little Passage Complexes—shown in the recovery of Little Passage artifacts mixed with European artifacts in the archaeological record. It is commonly believed that the Beothuk went “extinct” in 1829—with Shanawdithit widely referred to as the “Last Beothuk.” However, there is Indigenous oral history claiming the Beothuk intermarried with other Algonquin groups, namely the Mi’kmaq and Innu, with many of their descendants living in these communities today. This is also supported by anthropological evidence, including an interview with Santu Toney, a Beothuk-Mi’kmaw woman, in 1910.
Innu
The Innu are Algonquin Peoples thought to have descended from the Daniel Rattle and Point Revenge Complexes in Labrador, with their ancestral homeland, Nitassinan, along the Labrador-Quebec peninsula. However, there are very few archaeological investigations of Innu sites in this province, resulting in little detailed archaeological work. Limited investigations of Innu archaeological sites is primarily attributed to the flooding of Innu homelands destroying archaeological remains and the limited access for archaeologists to reach these sites. Interestingly, there is an archaeological site associated with the Innu and the Beothuk at the Red Bay National Historic Site in Southern Labrador.
Mi’kmaq
The Mi’kmaq are another Algonquin group found throughout Mi’kma’ki, their ancestral homeland, including present-day Québec (Gaspé peninsula), the Maritime Provinces, Newfoundland, and parts of the Northeastern United States. However, in Newfoundland, there is a gap in the archaeological work concerning the Mi’kmaq, evident in minimal scholarly work published and limited archaeological surveys conducted. Like with Innu archaeological work, flooding of traditional territories has likely destroyed much Mi’kmaw material culture. There is currently no archaeological evidence of pre-contact Mi’kmaw settlement in Newfoundland; however, there is much oral history from Mi’kmaw Elders and anthropological evidence (recorded stories) of the “Sa’yewedjkik” (“the ancients”) and legends with the Mi’kmaq living throughout Ktaqmkuk (Newfoundland) before European colonization.